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From Gutenberg to the Internet Timeline An Annotated Chronology of the History of Information from about 30,000 B.C.E. to the present, by Jeremy M. Norman. |
| 1920194019501960 |
1984 January 1st |
American Telephone and Telegraph (AT & T), is officially broken up, ending a long-established monopoly on telephone service. AT&T's local operations are split into seven independent regional Bell operating companies, known as "Baby Bells". AT&T, reduced in value by about 70%, continues to run all its long distance services. |
| January 24 | Apple Computer introduces the Macintosh ("Mac"), with a graphical user interface based on the Xerox Star system. |
| William Gibson coins the term “cyberspace” in his novel Neuromancer. | |
| Moderated newsgroups are introduced on USENET. | |
| The number of hosts connected to the Internet exceeds 1000. | |
| May 3 | At the age of 19 Michael Dell founds a company called "PC's Limited. " He starts by building PC clones out of his dorm room at the University of Texas at Austin. The company will change its name to Dell Computer Corporation in 1987. |
| December | Len Bosack and Sandy Lerner from Stanford University found Cisco Systems. The company is named for San Francisco, gateway to the Pacific Rim. |
| December 7 | Ray Ozzie leaves Lotus Development Corporation to found Iris Associates, the purpose of which is to develop groupware called "Notes." |
| 1985 | Paul Brainerd founds Aldus Corporation to produce PageMaker, the first page layout program for personal computers. Initially it runs on the "Mac." Brainerd also coins the term “desktop publishing.” Aldus will be purchased by Adobe Systems. |
| Apple introduces the LaserWriter laser printer. It costs $6,995. The Mac's ability to run PageMaker for "desktop publishing" in association with Apple's LaserWriter printer causes sales of the Mac to take off. | |
| Intel introduces the 386 microprocessor. It features 275,000 transistors more than 100 times as many as the first Intel microprocessor, the 4004. It is a 32-bit chip with multitasking. | |
| The Perseus
Digital Library Project begins at Tufts University.Though the project
is ostensibly about Greek and Roman literature and culture it will evolve
into an exploration of the ways that digital collections can enhance
scholarship with new research tools that take libraries and scholarship
beyond the physical book.
"Since planning began in 1985, the Perseus Digital Library Project
has explored what happens when libraries move online. Two decades later,
as new forms of publication emerge and millions of books become digital,
this question is more pressing than ever. Perseus is a practical experiment
in which we explore possibilities and challenges of digital collections
in a networked world.
"Our flagship collection, under development since 1987, covers the history, literature and culture of the Greco-Roman world. We are applying what we have learned from Classics to other subjects within the humanities and beyond. We have studied many problems over the past two decades, but our current research centers on personalization: organizing what you see to meet your needs. "We collect texts, images, datasets and other primary materials. We assemble and carefully structure encyclopedias, maps, grammars, dictionaries and other reference works. At present, 1.1 million manually created and 30 million automatically generated links connect the 100 million words and 75,000 images in the core Perseus collections. 850,000 reference articles provide background on 450,000 people, places, organizations, dictionary definitions, grammatical functions and other topics." |
|
| An IBM team begins scanning the papers related to Columbus' discovery of the new world at El Archivo General de Indias de Sevillia (AGI). "To coincide with the 500th anniversary of Columbus' landfall in the West Indies, the AGI project was to capture 10% of the collection estimated to consist of 86,000,000 pages. By 1992, it had indeed collected about 9,000,000 digital image pages onto optical disks, together with a set of finding aids." This is among the "earliest practical digital libraries." | |
| Three proposals are made to sequence the human genome. Robert Sinsheimer convenes a meeting in Santa Cruz that develops the idea of complete characterization of the human genome. Renato Dulbecco (Salk Institute) suggests sequencing the genome to help to understand cancer. Charles DeLisi at the Dept of Energy proposes a project to sequence the genome to help understand radiation damage. | |
| The Sanskrit word "avatar" is used to denote the computer representation of a user as the name for the player character in the computer game, Avatar IV, Quest of the Avatar. | |
| March 15 | Symbolics.com becomes the first registered domain on the Internet. |
| Richard Stallman publishes the GNU Manifesto in Dr. Dobbs' Journal of Software Tools.This is an outgrowth of the GNU Project, the goal of which is to develop "a sufficient body offree software [...] to get along without any software that is not free." | |
| April 1 | Stewart Brand and Larry Brilliant found The Whole Earth ‘Lectronic Link, perhaps the first online community. It will later be known as The WELL. It will connect to the Internet in 1992. |
| May | Quantum Computer Services launches an online bulletin-board service, Quantum Link (Q-Link), for users of Commodore-64 and 128 personal computers. The company will rename itself America Online (AOL) in 1991. |
| October | Richard Stallman founds the Free Software Foundation to support the free software movement. |
| November | Microsoft introduces Windows 1.0. It is an extension of MS-DOS rather than a completely new operating system. |
| 1986 | The number of hosts on the ARPANET/Internet exceeds five thousand. |
| Franklin Computer Corporation introduces Spelling Ace, an electronic spelling corrector. This may be considered the first handheld electronic book or e-book (eBook). | |
| The National Science Foundation approves funding for the Internet backbone. | |
| Leroy Hood and Lloyd Smith from the California Institute of Technology develop the first automatic sequencing machine working with a laser that recognizes fluorescing DNA markers. | |
| 1987 | Applied Biosystems markets the first commercial DNA sequencing machine, based on Hood’s technology. |
| Having searched for an acceptable ink formulation to replace oil-based printer's inks since 1979, The American Newspaper Publishers Association approves the use of soy ink, based on soybean oil. This environmentally friendly substitute for petroleum-based ink becomes widely used throughout the printing industry. | |
| To photograph, store, and organize the art work of the painter, Andrew Wyeth, Fred Mintzer, Henry Gladney and colleagues at IBM develop a high resolution digital camera for photographing art works and a PC-based database system to store and index the images. The system will be used by the staff of Wyeth to photograph, store, and organize about 10,000 images. "Pictures were scanned at a spatial resolution of 2500 by 3000 pixels and a color depth of 24 bits-per-pixel, and were color calibrated." This is the first digital image database of cultural materials. | |
| Formal proposals are made by the Department of Energy in US to sequence the human genome. It is estimated that one worker can produce about 50,0000 bases of finished DNA sequence per year at a cost of about $1-$2 per base. Thus the human genome will take 60,000 person-years and cost $36 billion to complete. | |
| UUNET Communications Services sells the first-ever commercial Internet connection. | |
| The number of hosts on the Internet exceeds ten thousand. | |
| November | C. Gordon Bell, as Chairman of the Subcommittee on Computer
Networking, Infrastructure and Digital Communications of the Federal Coordinating
Council on Science, Engineering and Technology, publishes A Report to the Office of Technology Policy
on Computer Networks to Support Research in the United States. A Study
of Critical Problems and Future Options. The report states: “Over
the next 15 years, there will be a need for a 100,000 times increase in
national network capacity to enable researchers to exploit computer capabilities
for representing complex data in visual form, for manipulating and interacting
with this complex data and for sharing large data bases with other researchers.”
“As the first step, the current Internet system developed by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and the networks supported by agencies for researchers should be interconnected. These facilities, if coordinated and centrally managed, have the capability to interconnect many computer networks into a single virtual computer network. As the second step, the existing computer networks that support research programs should be expanded and upgraded to serve 200-400 research institutions with 1.5 million bits per second capabilities. “As the third step, network service should be provided to every research institution in the U.S., with transmission speeds of three billion bits per second.” (p. 3) Bell summarizes the report in an article called Toward A National Research Telecommunications Network. |
| 25,000,000 PC’s have been sold in the United States. | |
| John and Thomas Knoll develop ImagePro, the prototype of Adobe Photoshop. Photoshop 1.0 will ship in February 1990. | |
| 1988 | OCLC acquires Forest Press, publisher of the Dewey Decimal Classification system. |
| Pixar's Tin Toy becomes the first computer-animated film to win an Academy Award, for the "best animated short film." "Tin Toy marked the first time a character with life-like bendable arms and knees, surfaces and facial components was animated digitally. The challenge was balancing it's 'cartoony' look with a baby's real looks." | |
| The magazine High Frontiers renames itself Reality Hackers to better reflect its drug culture and computer themes. It will change its name to Mondo 2000 in 1989. In this form it will influence the development of cyberpunk culture until its closure in 1998. | |
| Larry Costello founds Antiquarian Databases International (ADI). A Bulletin Board Service (BBS), it is the first operational online antiquarian book selling site, but it closes after only a few months. | |
| Mark Frauenfelder and Carla Sinclair begin publication on paper of the magazine bOING bOING, "The World's Greatest Neurozine". It becomes a founding influence in the development of cyberpunk. It will become a website in 1995 and be relaunched as a blog--Boing Boing, "a directory of wonderful things," in 2000. | |
| November 2 | The first computer worm to attract wide attention, the Morris worm, written by Robert Tappan Morris, a graduate student at Cornell, quickly infects a great number of computers on the Internet. "It propagated through a number of bugs inBSD Unix and its derivatives. Morris himself was convicted under the US Computer Crime and Abuse Act and received three years probation, community service and a fine in excess of $10,000." |
| Lotus introduces Lotus Notes developed by Ray Ozzie at Iris Associates. It is the first commercial networked-based communications and collaboration, or groupware, program. | |
| 1989 | The number of hosts on the Internet exceeds 100,000. |
| Sony releases the Sony ProMavica MVC-5000, one of the first digital cameras. The name MAVICA stands for magnetic video camera. | |
| The first gateways between private e-mail carriers and the Internet are established. CompuServe is connected through Ohio State University, MCI through the Corporation for National Research Initiatives. | |
| Digital high-definition TV software, based on video compression algorithms, is developed at Bell Labs. | |
| March | Tim Berners-Lee at CERN writes Information Management: A Proposal. In his words, this is a "an attempt to persuade CERN management that a global hypertext system was in CERN's interests. Note that the only name I had for it at this time was 'Mesh' " |
| November 12 | Tim Berners-Lee at CERN issues World Wide Web: Proposal for a Hypertext Project. |
| November 13 | Tim Berners-Lee writes the first web page on a NeXT workstation. |
| Christmas Holiday, 1989 | During the Christmas holiday Berners-Lee builds all the tools necessary for a working World Wide Web, including the first web browser, which is also a Web editor, and he creates the first Web server. At this time the number of servers on the Internet is one. |
| 1990 | ARPANET discontinues operations. |
| Alan Emtage, Bill Heelan, and Peter J. Deutsch, students at McGill University, write ARCHIE, a program designed to index FTP archives. It is the first "search engine", as distinct from a "web search engine." | |
| The Library of Congress begins making its collections available in digital form through the American Memory project. Initially the files are distributed to 44 schools and libraries on CD-ROMS. | |
| Mitchell Kapor, John Gilmore, and John Perry Barlow found the Electronic Frontier Foundation. The three had met on The Well. Motivation for creation of the organization is the "massive search and seizure on Steve Jackson Games by the United States Secret Service early in 1990." The first successful achievement of the new foundation is to lay "the groundwork for the successful representation of Steven Jackson Games (SJG) in a Federal court case to prosecute the United States Secret Service for unlawfully raiding their offices and seizing computers." | |
| The Coalition for Networked Information (CNI) is founded. By the end of its first year its membership consists of 18 institutions. | |
| 1991 | The first web server in North America goes live at Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC). |
| The National Science Foundation (NSF) lifts restrictions on the commercial use of the NSFNET backbone, clearing the way for electronic commerce. | |
| Adobe introduces the Portable Document Format (.PDF) to aid in the transfer of documents across platforms. PDF is a file format used to represent a document in a manner independent of the application software, hardware, and operating system used to create it. | |
| March | Apple introduces TrueType in competition with Adobe's PostScript. The first TrueType fonts available are Times Roman, Helvetica and Courier. |
| March 26-28 | Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility (CPSR) holds the First Conference on Computers, Freedom & Privacy. |
| August 6 | WorldWideWeb - Executive Summary, by Tim Berners-Lee, gives a
short summary of the World
Wide Web project: "The WWW project merges the techniques of
information retrieval and hypertext to
make an easy but powerful global information system."
"The project started with the philosophy that much academic information should be freely available to anyone. It aims to allow information sharing within internationally dispersed teams, and the dissemination of information by support groups. " |
| October 29 | One of the first U.S. cases related to Cyberspace law is decided: Cubby v. CompuServe, 776 F. Supp. 135 (1991). |
| J. Craig Venter and colleagues describe a fast new approach to gene discovery using Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs). Although controversial when first introduced, ESTs are soon widely employed both in public and private sector research. They prove economical and versatile, used not only for rapid identification of new genes, but also for analyzing gene expression, gene families, and possible disease-causing mutations. |
| 1920194019501960 |
(This page was last revised on
April 27, 2008
. Please report errors
and broken links to jnorman@jnorman.com.) |
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